Tài liệu Scaling and Uncertainty Analysis in Ecology: Methods and Applications pdf

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v
Dedication
This book is dedicated to landscape ecologists who have made outstanding
contributions to our understanding of scaling issues and hierarchy theory
in ecology and environmental science.
vii
Contents
Dedication v
Preface xi
List of Contributors xv
PART I. CONCEPTS AND METHODS 1
Chapter 1
CONCEPTS OF SCALE AND SCALING
Jianguo Wu and Harbin Li
3
Chapter 2
PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS OF SCALING
Jianguo Wu and Harbin Li
17
Chapter 3
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS IN ECOLOGICAL STUDIES:
AN

OVERVIEW
Harbin Li and Jianguo Wu
45
Chapter 4
MULTILEVEL STATISTICAL MODELS AND ECOLOGICAL
SCALING
Richard A. Berk and Jan de Leeuw
67

Chapter 5
DOWNSCALING ABUNDANCE FROM THE DISTRIBUTION
OF SPECIES: OCCUPANCY THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
Fangliang He and William Reed
89
viii
Chapter 6
SCALING TERRESTRIAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES:
SYSTEMS
Mark A. Bradford and James F. Reynolds
109


Chapter 7
PREDICTIONS
Debra P. C. Peters, Jin Yao, Laura F. Huenneke, Robert P. Gibbens,
Kris M. Havstad, Jeffrey E. Herrick, Albert Rango, and William H.
Schlesinger
131

Chapter 8
BUILDING UP WITH A TOP-DOWN APPROACH: THE ROLE
OF REMOTE SENSING IN DECIPHERING FUNCTIONAL
AND STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY
Carol A. Wessman and C. Ann Bateson
147

PART II. CASE STUDIES 165
Chapter 9
CARBON FLUXES ACROSS REGIONS: OBSERVATIONAL
CONSTRAINTS AT MULTIPLE SCALES
Beverly E. Law, Dave Turner, John Campbell, Michael Lefsky,
Michael Guzy, Osbert Sun, Steve Van Tuyl, and Warren Cohen
167

Chapter 10
NITROGEN GAS FLUXES
Peter M. Groffman, Rodney T. Venterea, Louis V. Verchot, and
Christopher S. Potter
191

Chapter 11
IN STREAMS
K. Bruce Jones, Anne C. Neale, Timothy G. Wade, Chad L. Cross,
James D. Wickham, Maliha S. Nash, Curtis M. Edmonds, Kurt H.
Riitters, Robert V. O’Neill, Elizabeth R. Smith, and Rick D. Van
Remortel
205

Chapter 12
COEFFICIENTS
James D. Wickham, K. Bruce Jones, Timothy G. Wade, and Kurt
H. Riitters
225


IN

CONTRASTING INTACT AND MODEL EXPERIMENTAL
CONTENTS
A FRAMEWORK AND METHODS FOR SIMPLIFYING
COMPLEX LANDSCAPES TO REDUCE UNCERTAINTY
LANDSCAPE AND REGIONAL SCALE STUDIES OF
MULTISCALE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LANDSCAPE
CHARACTERISTICS AND NITROGEN CONCENTRATIONS
UNCERTAINTY IN SCALING NUTRIENT EXPORT
ix
Chapter 13
CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF LAND USE CHANGE IN

UNCERTAINTY
Dean L. Urban, Robert I. McDonald, Emily S. Minor, and Eric A.
Treml
239

Chapter 14
ASSESSING THE INFLUENCE OF SPATIAL SCALE ON THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AVIAN NESTING SUCCESS AND
FOREST FRAGMENTATION
Penn Lloyd, Thomas E. Martin, Roland L. Redmond, Melissa M.
Hart, Ute Langner, and Ronald D. Bassar
259

Chapter 15
SCALING ISSUES IN MAPPING RIPARIAN ZONES WITH
REMOTE SENSING DATA: QUANTIFYING ERRORS AND
SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY
Thomas P. Hollenhorst, George E. Host, and Lucinda B. Johnson
275

Chapter 16


WATER CLARITY
Carol A. Johnston and Boris A. Shmagin
297

Chapter 17
SCALING AND UNCERTAINTY IN REGION-WIDE WATER
QUALITY DECISION-MAKING
Orie L. Loucks, Harry J. Stone, and Bruce M. Kahn
315

PART III. SYNTHESIS 327
Chapter 18
Jianguo Wu, Harbin Li, K. Bruce Jones, and Orie L. Loucks
329

INDEX 347
CONTENTS
THE NORTH CAROLINA PIEDMONT: THE SCOPE OF
SCALE ISSUES IN LAKE-WATERSHED INTERACTIONS:
ASSESSING SHORELINE DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS ON
SCALING WITH KNOWN UNCERTAINTY: A SYNTHESIS
xi
Preface
Scale is a unifying concept that cuts across all natural and social sciences. At the
same time, scaling is a common challenge in both basic and applied research.
Accordingly, scale and scaling have become two of the most widely used buzzwords
in ecology today. Over the past two decades, more than a dozen books and many
more journal papers have been published on the problems of scale and scaling in
ecology and geophysical sciences. These publications, as reviewed in the chapters of
this book, have contributed significantly to our current understanding of scale issues.
A little more than 30 years ago, the noted geneticist and evolutionary biologist,
Theodosius Dobzhansky, stated that “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the
light of evolution” (The American Biology Teacher 35:125-129). Today, there
seems a growing consensus in ecology that pattern and process make little sense
without consideration of scale.
While scale issues are widely recognized, a comprehensive understanding of
scaling theory and methods still is missing. In this book we make several
observations on the status of research on scale in ecology. First, while ecologists
have played an active role in the application of scale-related theories such as
hierarchy, self-similarity, and self-organized criticality, a number of pragmatic
scaling methods have developed in geophysical disciplines. Many of them may be
quite appropriate for a range of ecological problems, but are yet to be fully explored
in ecology. Second, some of the most frequently mentioned scaling theories are
often seen as being at odds with each other. For example, hierarchy theory implies
scale-multiplicity and thresholds, while self-similarity and self-organized criticality
suggest scale invariance. A full understanding of the relationships among different
scaling theories is needed, and this requires critical examination of recent theoretical
and empirical studies. Third, most scaling studies in ecology have either ignored or
inadequately addressed the issues of uncertainty and error propagation, which
should be an integral part of scaling. We argue that scaling, without considering
uncertainty, is easy but relatively trivial; scaling with known uncertainty is
challenging but essential. Fourth, scaling often requires field-based data from
multiple spatial and temporal scales, but these data rarely exist for many ecosystems.
Such inadequacies of data further elevate the demand for effective scaling
xii
approaches. Finally, scaling theories and methods have seldom been applied
explicitly in the contexts of environmental management, planning, and decision-
making processes, where the scale of social, economic, political, and ecological
processes may clash with each other. A pluralistic and interdisciplinary approach is
needed to resolve scaling problems in such complex situations.
To address these problems, a workshop entitled “Scaling and Uncertainty
Analysis in Ecology: Methods and Application” was held during September 17-19,
2002 at Arizona State University, Tempe, U.S.A., supported through a grant from
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The major objectives of
the workshop were to identify approaches and methods in scaling and uncertainty
analysis, and to consider a series of case studies illustrating how scale issues are
dealt with in various areas of research. More than 20 active researchers in scaling
and uncertainty analysis were invited to participate in the workshop, many of whom
were recipients of EPA’s Science To Achieve Results (STAR) program (Regional
Scale Analysis and Assessment). This book has evolved out of the scaling
workshop, and is comprised primarily of the papers remaining after a critical
external review process.
The book, therefore, presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review and
synthesis of concepts, theories, methods and case studies in scaling and uncertainty
analysis that are relevant to ecology. The series of case studies included here
illustrate how scaling and uncertainty analysis are being conducted in ecology and
environmental science, from population to ecosystem processes, from biodiversity to
landscape patterns, and from basic research to multidisciplinary management and
policy-making issues. The book explicitly considers uncertainty and error analysis
as an integral part of scaling. While the theme of this book focuses primarily on
spatial scaling, several chapters deal as well with aspects of temporal scaling. It is
not intended to be a handbook of “scaling recipes,” but we hope that it will help
readers gain a fuller understanding of the state-of-the-science of scale issues. We
expect that this book will be of interest to a wide range of audiences, including
graduate students, academic professionals, and applied researchers and specialists in
ecological, environmental, and earth sciences. It may be used as a text or reference
book for graduate courses in ecology and related disciplines. This book should be
particularly appealing to scientists and practitioners working on broad spatial scales.
Also, the book can be useful to decision makers who are conscious about scale
issues as they translate science into resource use policies.
We are most deeply indebted to the contributors of papers included in the book,
whose enthusiasm and dedication have made this book a reality. Many other
individuals also were instrumental to the completion of the book. We especially
thank the following people for providing valuable reviews of book chapters: Dennis
Baldocchi, Klaus Butterbach-Bahl, Mark Castro, Jiquan Chen, Mark R. T. Dale,
Dean Gesch, Phil A. Graniero, John Harte, Geoffrey J. Hay, Louis R. Iverson, James
R. Karr, Madhu Katti, Richard G. Lathrop, Helene Muller-Landau, John Ludwig,
James R. Meadowcroft, Garry Peterson, Geoffrey C. Poole, Edward B. Rastetter,
Helen Regan, Christine Ribic, Steven W. Running, Santiago Saura, Matthew
Williams, and Xinyuan Wu. We are extremely grateful to Chuck Redman (Director),
Nikol Grant, and Shirley Stapleton at the Center for Environmental Studies of
Arizona State University who provided wonderful logistic support during the scaling
workshop in Tempe. We also thank Barbara Levinson and Jonathan Smith at EPA
PREFACE
xiii
for their support for the scaling workshop in Tempe. Last, but not least, we express
our sincere appreciation to Dr. Catherine Cotton (Publishing Editor) and Ms. Ria
Kanters at Springer for their wonderful guidance and assistance during the
production of the book.
Finally, we should note that several chapters originally had color images which
later were converted to grayscale. We have made these color figures available online
at a web site specifically for this book, which also contains the abstracts of all
chapters and additional information on scaling and uncertainty analysis. The web
address can be freely accessed at: http://LEML.asu.edu/ScalingBook/.
Editors
Jianguo (Jingle) Wu
K. Bruce Jones
Harbin Li
Orie L. Loucks
PREFACE
xv
List of Contributors
Ronald D. Bassar, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of
Montana, Missoula, MT 59812
C. Ann Bateson, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences,
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0216
Richard A. Berk, Department of Statistics, University of California, Los Angeles,
CA 90095
Mark A. Bradford, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-
2602
John Campbell, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331
Warren B. Cohen, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
97331
Chad L. Cross, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV 89193-3478
Jan de Leeuw, Department of Statistics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA
90095-1554
Curtis M. Edmonds, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV 89193-
3478
Robert P. Gibbens, USDA ARS, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM
88003-0003
Peter M. Groffman, Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Box AB, Millbrook, NY 12545-
0129
Michael Guzy, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331
Melissa M. Hart, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of
Montana, Missoula, MT 59812
Kris M. Havstad, USDA ARS, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM
88003-0003
Fangliang He, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H1
Jeffrey E. Herrick, USDA ARS, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM
88003-0003
xvi
Thomas P. Hollenhorst, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of
Minnesota, Duluth, MN 55811-1442
George E. Host, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of Minnesota,
Duluth, MN 55811-1442
Laura F. Huenneke, College of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Northern Arizona
University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
K. Bruce Jones, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV 89193-3478
Lucinda B. Johnson, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of Minnesota,
Duluth, MN 55811-1442
Carol A. Johnston, Center for Biocomplexity Studies, South Dakota State
University, Brookings, SD 57007-0896
Bruce M. Kahn, Department of Zoology, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056
Ute Langner, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana,
Missoula, MT 59812
Beverly E. Law, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-
5752
Michael Lefsky, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331
Harbin Li, USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station, Center for Forested
Wetlands Research, Charleston, SC 29414
Penn Lloyd, DST/NRF Centre of Excellence, Percy FitzPatrick Institute, University
of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
Orie L. Loucks, Department of Zoology, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056
Thomas E. Martin, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of
Montana, Missoula, MT 59812
Robert I. McDonald, Nicholas School of Environment & Earth Sciences, Duke
University, Durham, NC 27708
Emily S. Minor, Nicholas School of Environment & Earth Sciences, Duke
University, Durham, NC 27708
Maliha S. Nash, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV 89193-
3478
Anne C. Neale, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV 89193-3478
Robert V. O’Neill, Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
xvii
Debra P.C. Peters, USDA ARS, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM
88003-0003
Christopher S. Potter, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000
Albert Rango, USDA ARS, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM 88003-
0003
Roland L. Redmond, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of
Montana, Missoula, MT 59812
William Reed, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Victoria,
Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 3P4
James F. Reynolds, Department of Biology and Nicholas School of Environment &
Earth Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
Kurt H. Riitters, U.S. Forest Service Southern Research Station, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27709
William H. Schlesinger, Nicholas School of Environment & Earth Sciences, Duke
University, Durham, NC 27708
Boris A. Shmagin, Water Resources Institute, South Dakota State University,
Brookings, South Dakota 57007
Elizabeth R. Smith, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (E243-05), National
Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Harry J. Stone, Department of Zoology, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056
Osbert Sun, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-
5752
Eric A. Treml, Nicholas School of Environment & Earth Sciences, Duke University,
Durham, NC 27708
Dave Turner, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331
Dean L. Urban, Nicholas School of Environment & Earth Sciences, Duke
University, Durham, NC 27708-0328
Rick D. Van Remortel, Lockheed Martin Environmental Services, Las Vegas, NV
89119
Steve Van Tuyl, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331
Rodney T. Venterea, Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Box AB, Millbrook, NY 12545
Louis V. Verchot, Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Box AB, Millbrook, NY 12545
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS